1 Introduction

Mosquitoes are vectors for significant human diseases such as malaria dengue Zika chikungunya and West Nile virus posing a serious threat to global health (Benelli and Mehlhorn 2016; Burkett-Cadena and Vittor 2017; Jones et al., 2019), The distribution and dynamics of mosquito populations are influenced by environmental factors such as temperature humidity and the availability of breeding sites (Jones et al., 2019; Brugueras et al., 2020), Understanding mosquito habitats is crucial for developing effective vector control strategies and mitigating the spread of mosquito-borne diseases (Benelli and Mehlhorn 2016; Brugueras et al., 2020).

Agricultural practices such as deforestation irrigation and pesticide use can significantly alter mosquito habitats and influence the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases (Burkett-Cadena and Vittor 2017; Priya et al., 2023), Deforestation favors certain mosquito species that transmit human pathogens increasing the risk of disease transmission (Burkett-Cadena and Vittor, 2017), Irrigation practices create standing water providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes (Priya et al., 2023), While chemical pesticides effectively control mosquito populations they can adversely affect non-target species and the environment necessitating more sustainable and eco-friendly control measures (Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016; Priya et al., 2023).

This study synthesizes findings from multiple studies to explore the role of various agricultural practices in shaping mosquito habitats and their impact on mosquito-borne disease transmission. It identifies key agricultural practices affecting mosquito populations and evaluates the effectiveness of different control strategies. This study examines the impact of deforestation irrigation and pesticide use on mosquito habitats and assesses alternative sustainable mosquito control methods. The aim is to provide insights for future research and guide the development of integrated vector management strategies.

2 Mosquito Ecology and Habitat Requirements

2.1 General mosquito life cycle and habitat needs

Mosquitoes undergo a complex life cycle that includes four stages: egg larva pupa and adult. The first three stages are aquatic making the availability and quality of water bodies crucial for their development. Mosquitoes lay their eggs in or near water and the larvae commonly known as wigglers hatch and live in water feeding on organic matter and microorganisms. The pupal stage also aquatic is a transitional phase before the emergence of the adult mosquito which is terrestrial and capable of flight.

The specific habitat requirements of mosquitoes vary by species, but generally, they need still or slow-moving water bodies for egg-laying and larval development. Factors such as water temperature, pH levels, turbidity, and the presence of organic matter can significantly affect the suitability of these habitats. For example, Anopheles mosquitoes, which are the primary vectors of malaria, prefer clean, sunlit water bodies, whereas Culex mosquitoes, which can transmit the West Nile virus, thrive in more polluted waters (Alkhayat et al., 2020; Hawaria et al., 2020). Various ecological variables, such as water depth, pH levels, and water surface area, significantly influence the types and distribution of mosquito larvae (Table 1). Studies indicate that environmental factors play a crucial role in mosquito oviposition preferences and larval densities, suggesting that managing these habitats can effectively control diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.

Table 1 from Alkhayat et al. (2020) details the relationships between three mosquito species (Anopheles, Culex, and Culex quinquefasciatus) and their ecological variables. The study uses multivariable logistic regression analysis to reveal the likelihood of each species' occurrence under different ecological conditions and their statistical significance. The results indicate that different mosquito species have varying preferences for environmental factors such as vegetation, water depth, and pH, which are crucial for understanding mosquito habitat requirements and developing vector control strategies.

2.2 Key environmental factors influencing mosquito populations

Several environmental factors play a critical role in shaping mosquito populations and their habitats. These factors include:

1. Water Quality and Availability: The presence of water bodies is essential for mosquito breeding. Studies have shown that irrigation and other agricultural practices can create new aquatic habitats thereby increasing mosquito populations. For example the development of irrigation schemes in Southwest Ethiopia has led to a higher diversity and abundance of Anopheles mosquito larvae in irrigated areas compared to non-irrigated areas (Hawaria et al., 2020).

2. Land Use Changes: Deforestation agriculture and urbanization can alter the landscape creating new breeding sites for mosquitoes. In Malaysian Borneo land-use changes such as deforestation and the establishment of rubber plantations have been linked to increased mosquito breeding habitats thereby influencing malaria transmission (Byrne et al., 2021).

3. Nutrient Enrichment: The input of nutrients such as cattle dung into aquatic habitats can significantly increase mosquito larval abundance. Higher nutrient concentrations promote the growth of microorganisms that serve as food for mosquito larvae thereby enhancing their development and survival rates (Buxton et al., 2020).

4. Insecticide Use: The use of agricultural pesticides can lead to the development of insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. In Côte d'Ivoire mosquito populations in agricultural regions have shown resistance to certain insecticides used in crop protection complicating vector control efforts (Mouhamadou et al., 2019).

5. Predation and Competition: The presence of natural predators and competitors can influence mosquito larval survival. In Northern Tanzania temporary ponds with a diverse assemblage of aquatic predators have been found to maintain low mosquito densities highlighting the importance of ecological balance in controlling mosquito populations (Mataba et al., 2021).

6. Seasonal Variations: Seasonal changes can affect the availability and quality of mosquito breeding habitats. For instance the abundance of Anopheles larvae in Ethiopia was found to be higher during the wet season compared to the dry season indicating the influence of seasonal rainfall on mosquito breeding (Hawaria et al., 2020).

The interplay of water quality land use nutrient enrichment insecticide use predation and seasonal variations significantly shapes mosquito habitats and populations. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing effective mosquito control strategies and mitigating the risk of mosquito-borne diseases.

3 Impact of Agricultural Practices on Mosquito Habitats

3.1 Water management and irrigation practices

3.1.1 Rice paddies and mosquito breeding grounds

Rice paddies are significant breeding grounds for mosquitoes particularly in regions where irrigation is prevalent. Studies have shown that the presence of water retention structures within rice paddies can influence mosquito populations. For instance the construction of ditches within paddies has been incentivized to mitigate the negative impacts of intensive rice cultivation on biodiversity including mosquito habitats. However the effectiveness of these ditches in reducing mosquito breeding varies with larger ditches supporting more abundant populations of certain species (Giuliano and Bogliani, 2019), Additionally the diversity and abundance of mosquito larvae are significantly higher in irrigated areas compared to non-irrigated areas indicating that irrigation practices contribute to the proliferation of mosquito breeding habitats (Hawaria et al., 2020).

3.1.2 Irrigation ditches and standing water

Irrigation ditches and standing water are common features in agricultural landscapes that can serve as mosquito breeding sites. The presence of these water bodies especially in rice agroecosystems provides ideal conditions for mosquito larvae development. Studies have shown that mosquito larvae are found in various aquatic habitats including irrigation canals and ditches with higher abundance during the rainy season. Effective water management strategies such as intermittent flooding have been shown to reduce the density of mosquito larvae significantly thereby potentially mitigating malaria transmission in regions with extensive rice cultivation (Djégbe et al., 2020).

3.2 Crop cultivation and landscape changes

3.2.1 Deforestation and habitat alteration

Deforestation and habitat alteration due to agricultural expansion can significantly impact mosquito habitats. The conversion of natural landscapes into agricultural fields often leads to the creation of new breeding sites for mosquitoes. For example the loss of non-cropped habitats in European farmlands has been linked to a decline in biodiversity including natural predators of mosquitoes thereby potentially increasing mosquito populations (Giuliano et al., 2018), In regions like northern Vietnam the abundance of mosquito larvae is higher in altered landscapes such as rice fields and ditches particularly during the rainy season (Ohba et al., 2015).

3.2.2 Monoculture vs. polyculture and their impacts

The type of crop cultivation whether monoculture or polyculture can influence mosquito habitats. Monoculture practices such as extensive rice farming often lead to landscape homogenization which can create uniform and extensive breeding sites for mosquitoes. In contrast polyculture practices that incorporate diverse crops and maintain habitat heterogeneity can support a variety of species including natural mosquito predators. Organic farming practices which often involve polyculture have been shown to support higher biodiversity and potentially reduce mosquito populations by promoting the presence of natural predators (Katayama et al., 2019).

3.3 Use of pesticides and chemical inputs

3.3.1 Effects on non-target species

The use of pesticides in agriculture can have detrimental effects on non-target species including natural predators of mosquitoes. For instance the application of herbicides and insecticides in rice fields has been shown to reduce the diversity and abundance of beneficial insects such as butterflies and orthopterans which can indirectly affect mosquito populations by disrupting ecological balances (Giuliano et al., 2018), Additionally the historical use of highly toxic pesticides in rice farming has had significant negative impacts on various taxa including aquatic plants and invertebrates (Katayama et al., 2015).

3.3.2 Development of pesticide-resistant mosquito populations

The extensive use of chemical pesticides in agriculture can lead to the development of pesticide-resistant mosquito populations. Studies have documented varying levels of resistance to common insecticides among mosquito species in agricultural areas. For example Culex pipiens pallens in Shandong Province China has developed high resistance to cypermethrin and deltamethrin moderate resistance to dichlorvos and low resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) (Wang et al., 2020), This resistance complicates mosquito control efforts and necessitates the development of integrated pest management strategies.

3.4 Agricultural waste management

3.4.1 Organic waste and mosquito breeding sites

Improper management of organic waste in agricultural settings can create additional breeding sites for mosquitoes. Organic waste such as decaying plant material and livestock manure can accumulate in water bodies providing nutrient-rich environments for mosquito larvae. Effective waste management practices are essential to reduce the availability of such breeding sites and control mosquito populations.

3.4.2 Impact of livestock waste on mosquito populations

Livestock waste can also contribute to the proliferation of mosquito breeding sites. The presence of livestock near agricultural fields can lead to the contamination of water bodies with organic matter which can support the development of mosquito larvae. Studies have shown that the density of mosquito larvae is influenced by the physicochemical characteristics of their breeding habitats including the presence of organic matter (Wang et al., 2020), Therefore managing livestock waste effectively is crucial for controlling mosquito populations in agricultural landscapes.

4 Case Study

4.1 Case study 1: rice cultivation in Southeast Asia

4.1.1 Agricultural practices and mosquito habitat creation

Rice cultivation in Southeast Asia often involves extensive irrigation systems that create ideal breeding habitats for malaria vectors particularly Anopheles mosquitoes. The continuous flooding of rice fields provides stable aquatic environments conducive to mosquito larval development. Studies have shown that intermittent flooding as opposed to continuous flooding can significantly reduce the density of Anopheles larvae. For instance in Malanville Benin intermittent flooding reduced larval density by up to 80.8% during certain rice growth stages compared to continuous flooding (Djégbe et al., 2020). Additionally the volatiles emitted by rice plants attract gravid Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes further linking rice cultivation to increased mosquito populations (Wondwosen et al., 2016).

4.1.2 Impact on local mosquito populations and disease transmission

The impact of rice cultivation on local mosquito populations and malaria transmission is profound. The stable aquatic conditions in rice fields can lead to a significant increase in mosquito vector populations thereby elevating the risk of malaria transmission. A systematic review and meta-analysis highlighted that rice fields are capable of generating large numbers of malaria vectors contributing to over 400,000 malaria-related deaths annually worldwide (Chan et al., 2022), Moreover the presence of rice fields has been associated with higher malaria incidence rates in surrounding communities as observed in Malanville where malaria cases peaked during the rice production season (Djégbe et al., 2020).

4.2 Case study 2: irrigation systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

4.2.1 Role of irrigation in altering mosquito habitats

Irrigation systems in Sub-Saharan Africa significantly alter mosquito habitats by creating numerous breeding sites for malaria vectors. In Western Kenya irrigated ecosystems were found to have a three-fold increase in suitable mosquito breeding habitats compared to non-irrigated areas leading to higher larval densities and increased production of adult mosquitoes (Orondo et al., 2022), Similarly irrigation in Homa Bay and Kisumu Counties Kenya was associated with a more than two-fold increase in Plasmodium infection prevalence and a three-fold increase in clinical malaria incidence compared to non-irrigated areas (Zhou et al., 2022). Zhou et al. (2022) effectively demonstrated the differences in malaria incidence between irrigated and non-irrigated areas, showing consistently higher incidence rates in irrigated regions (Figure 1). The visual representation in the figure highlights the close relationship between irrigation practices and malaria transmission dynamics, making it an important reference case for understanding the impact of irrigation systems on mosquito habitats in sub-Saharan Africa.

4.2.2 Community responses and mitigation strategies

Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa have adopted various strategies to mitigate the impact of irrigation on mosquito populations and malaria transmission. Effective water management practices such as intermittent irrigation have been shown to reduce the abundance of malaria vectors. For example intermittent irrigation in rice fields can reduce the abundance of late-stage anopheline larvae by 35% compared to continuous flooding (Chan et al., 2022), Additionally incorporating larval source management into routine malaria control strategies has been suggested to help reduce mosquito population density and malaria transmission around irrigation schemes (Hawaria et al., 2020).

4.3 Case study 3: pesticide use in South America

4.3.1 Influence of pesticide application on mosquito ecology

The use of pesticides in agricultural practices in South America has a significant influence on mosquito ecology. Pesticides can affect mosquito populations by reducing larval and adult mosquito densities. However the extensive use of insecticides has also led to the development of insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. In Ghana for instance Anopheles gambiae populations from irrigated rice areas exhibited high resistance to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides which are commonly used in agriculture (Chabi et al., 2016).

4.3.2 Consequences for mosquito-borne disease control

The development of insecticide resistance among mosquito populations poses a major challenge for mosquito-borne disease control. Insecticide-resistant mosquitoes are more difficult to control leading to higher transmission rates of diseases such as malaria. The resistance observed in Anopheles gambiae populations in Ghana underscores the need for integrated vector management strategies that combine chemical and non-chemical control methods to effectively manage mosquito populations and reduce disease transmission (Chabi et al., 2016).

5 Mitigation Strategies and Sustainable Practices

5.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in agriculture

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a comprehensive approach that combines preventive and therapeutic measures to manage pests, including herbivorous insects, pathogens, and weeds, while reducing the use of synthetic pesticides. The role of genetic diversity, the necessity of understanding resistance mechanisms, and the benefits of interdisciplinary research are crucial in formulating robust IPM strategies (Figure 2). IPM aims to promote sustainable agriculture by reducing reliance on chemical control and integrating biological control methods, biopesticides, and other environmentally friendly practices (Baker et al., 2020; Green et al., 2020; Deguine et al., 2021). Despite its potential, the adoption of IPM faces several challenges, such as inconsistent definitions, insufficient farmer participation, and a lack of understanding of ecological principles (Deguine et al., 2021). To overcome these obstacles, it is essential to enhance education and extension services, foster collaboration between organic and IPM communities, and implement policies that encourage the use of biological control methods (Baker et al., 2020; Deguine et al., 2021).

Green et al. (2020) present the concept of evolutionary IPM, emphasizing the necessity of integrating evolutionary principles into pest management strategies. The diagram illustrates the interactions between research, social, and economic aspects in a hierarchical structure, highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration, stakeholder involvement, and economic considerations in implementing evolutionary IPM. The diagram also underscores the potential for continuous improvement and enhancing societal understanding of the evolutionary framework.

5.2 Sustainable water management practices

Sustainable water management practices are essential in shaping mosquito habitats particularly in agricultural settings where water bodies can serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Effective water management strategies include optimizing irrigation practices to reduce standing water implementing water conservation techniques and using biological control agents to manage mosquito populations in water bodies (Fahad et al., 2021), These practices not only help in controlling mosquito habitats but also contribute to the overall sustainability of agricultural systems by conserving water resources and reducing the environmental impact of farming activities.

5.3 Habitat modification and biological control

Habitat modification and biological control are essential components of sustainable pest management strategies. By modifying agricultural landscapes to reduce mosquito breeding sites, such as draining standing water and managing vegetation, mosquito populations can be significantly reduced (Fahad et al., 2021). Additionally, the use of biocontrol agents, such as natural predators and pathogens, provides an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. The novel toxin Epp from Bacillus thuringiensis is toxic to mosquitoes and Spodoptera litura larvae, offering a chemical insecticide alternative for controlling forestry pests and mosquitoes (Zhou et al., 2020). Biological IPM methods, utilizing natural agents to manage pests and weeds in rice production systems, show potential for broader agricultural applications (Fahad et al., 2021). These strategies not only help control mosquito habitats but also promote biodiversity and ecological balance in agricultural ecosystems.

5.4 Policy recommendations and community involvement

Effective policy recommendations and community involvement are crucial for the successful implementation of sustainable pest management practices. Policies should focus on promoting the adoption of IPM and other sustainable practices by providing incentives funding research and facilitating knowledge transfer between researchers and farmers (Baker et al., 2020; Deguine et al., 2021), Engaging local communities in pest management efforts through education and awareness programs can enhance the understanding and acceptance of sustainable practices. Community involvement is particularly important in urban ecosystems where the management of pests including mosquitoes requires coordinated efforts to minimize health risks and environmental impacts (Zhu et al., 2016), By fostering collaboration between policymakers researchers and communities it is possible to develop and implement effective strategies for managing mosquito habitats and promoting sustainable agriculture.

6 Future Directions and Research Needs

6.1 Emerging agricultural practices and their potential impacts

Emerging agricultural practices such as the expansion of irrigated agriculture have significant implications for mosquito habitats. Studies have shown that irrigation development can increase the diversity and abundance of mosquito breeding sites thereby elevating the risk of malaria transmission. For instance research conducted at the Arjo-Dedessa irrigation development site in Southwest Ethiopia revealed that irrigated areas had a higher diversity and abundance of anopheline mosquito larvae compared to non-irrigated areas indicating that irrigation contributes to the proliferation of mosquito breeding habitats (Hawaria et al., 2020), Additionally the use of agricultural pesticides has been linked to the selection of insecticide resistance in mosquito populations which complicates vector control efforts. Evidence from studies in Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso demonstrates that agricultural pesticide use can lead to resistance in malaria vectors such as Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae respectively (Hien et al., 2017; Mouhamadou et al., 2019), Future research should focus on understanding the long-term impacts of these practices and developing strategies to mitigate their negative effects on mosquito populations and disease transmission.

6.2 Technological Advancements in Mosquito Habitat Management

Technological advancements offer promising avenues for improving mosquito habitat management. The integration of drone surveys and entomological sampling has been shown to effectively characterize mosquito breeding sites in agricultural landscapes. A study in Côte d'Ivoire developed a technical workflow that combined drone mapping with mosquito larval sampling to identify breeding habitats of Anopheles funestus providing valuable data for targeted vector control efforts (Byrne et al., 2021). Additionally the use of participatory Bayesian modeling has been explored to study habitat management for biological pest control. This approach involves local stakeholders in the modeling process allowing for the incorporation of local knowledge and perspectives which can enhance the effectiveness of habitat management strategies (Salliou et al., 2019), Future research should continue to explore and refine these technological tools as well as investigate their applicability in different ecological contexts and agricultural settings.

6.3 Interdisciplinary Research Approaches

Interdisciplinary research approaches are crucial for addressing the complex interactions between agricultural practices and mosquito habitats. The connection between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems for example highlights the need for integrated studies that consider the transfer of ecological subsidies and their implications for both ecosystems. Research has shown that winged stream insects can provide important ecosystem services to agriculture such as pollination and soil fertilization while also influencing mosquito populations (Raitif et al., 2019), Additionally studies have demonstrated the importance of maintaining natural enemies in agricultural landscapes to control mosquito populations. In Northern Tanzania native predators in temporary ponds were found to maintain low mosquito densities suggesting that conservation of these predators can be an effective strategy for mosquito control (Mataba et al., 2021), Future research should prioritize interdisciplinary collaborations that bring together ecologists entomologists agronomists and public health experts to develop holistic and sustainable solutions for managing mosquito habitats in agricultural landscapes.

7 Concluding Remarks

The literature review indicates that agricultural practices have a significant impact on mosquito habitats and subsequently affect public health. Research shows that irrigated agriculture such as the study conducted in Southwest Ethiopia increases the diversity and abundance of Anopheles mosquito breeding habitats thereby elevating the risk of malaria transmission. Similarly in arid regions cattle-induced eutrophication enhances the abundance of mosquito larvae especially disease-vector species due to nutrient enrichment from cattle dung. The use of agricultural pesticides has been shown to select for insecticide resistance in mosquito populations with studies in Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire providing direct evidence of this phenomenon. Additionally urbanization and land-use changes contribute to the proliferation of mosquito habitats particularly in tropical urban landscapes where human activities create artificial breeding sites for vector species like Aedes albopictus.

These findings emphasize the importance of integrated agricultural and public health policies to address the unintended consequences of agricultural practices on mosquito habitats and vector-borne disease transmission. Irrigation schemes should incorporate larval source management strategies to mitigate the increased risk of malaria. Sustainable livestock management practices are essential to prevent eutrophication and the subsequent rise in mosquito populations. Moreover regulating and carefully managing pesticide use in agriculture is crucial to prevent the development of insecticide resistance in mosquito vectors which can undermine vector control efforts. Improved urban planning and environmental management practices can also reduce artificial breeding sites in urban areas decreasing the prevalence of vector species.

The intersection of agricultural practices and mosquito habitat formation presents both challenges and opportunities for public health. Effective management strategies that integrate agricultural productivity with vector control are essential. Recommendations include incorporating vector control measures in irrigation projects promoting sustainable livestock rearing practices to control mosquito proliferation developing guidelines for judicious pesticide use to prevent the selection of insecticide-resistant mosquito populations and enhancing urban planning to minimize artificial breeding sites. By addressing these areas agricultural policies can align with public health goals to create healthier environments and reduce the burden of mosquito-borne diseases.

Acknowledgments

EmtoSci Publisher thanks the two anonymous peer reviewers for their detailed review and valuable feedback on the manuscript of this study.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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